Fact: We know that nearly all last names in the United States—a whopping 97%!—are passed down to us from our fathers. But how surnames were actually created and when they became a tradition is more complex story.
“Names can be endlessly fascinating, as they hold special significance as emblems of our identity,” says Nathaniel Taylor, PhD, president of the American Society of Genealogists. “We can look at the names of our ancestors or others in our societies stretching back hundreds or even thousands of years.”
Then there’s the staggering variety of last names in the U.S. alone, with 7.8 million different ones currently in use, per the 2020 census. Just 11 of these names were reported more than a million times each, while the vast majority, 7 million, were counted fewer than 100 times.
My own last name at birth was Kelly, a common Irish one that means “descendant of Ceallach.” Aside from some grade-school teasing (“Smelly Kelly!”), I loved it. But when I got married, I took on a more challenging one: Geddes. Not many know its origins (Scotland) or meaning (mountain ridge), and fewer still can pronounce it—Geddes rhymes with lettuce. But at least there’s no silly taunting!
So what are the most common last names in the U.S. today, and how did they come to be? To find out, we turned to Taylor and Crista Cowan, Ancestry’s corporate genealogist. Read on to learn their origins and get a few clues about how your last name may have gotten its start too.
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Have people always had last names?
Believe it or not, no. In fact, in the Western world, for thousands of years, people simply went by one name—their first. But eventually, the need for surnames became apparent, since too many folks had the same first names. “Surnames are a medieval invention in Europe, appearing in many parts of the region from the 11th to the 13th centuries,” Taylor explains. “European-style inherited surnames came to the Western Hemisphere later on, between the 16th and 17th centuries.”
Experts believe the earliest recorded European last name is “O Cleirigh,” which originated in Ireland in 916 AD and would be spelled O’Clery today. But the Chinese have that record beat! “China developed hereditary family names, called Xing, more than 3,000 years ago, which makes its surname tradition one of the oldest in the world,” explains Cowan.
Other ancient cultures tracked lineage through titles or sacred roles rather than fixed last names. “For instance,” Cowan says, “Jewish Kohanim (priestly lines tracing back to Aaron, Moses’s brother) kept track of their hereditary lineage for thousands of years, even though fixed European surnames for these families, like Katz, which is short for Kohen Tsedek, were only formalized much later in history.”
Why did the concept of having last names really take off?
Along with the need to distinguish all the different people named John or Mary, last names took off because of big jumps in population, an increase in the number and types of trades, and the use of written records. Wealth and social prestige were also behind their rise. “The factors that gave rise to inheriting a surname included new laws about marriage and property inheritance in 12th-century Europe,” Taylor says.
Other motives were cultural, Taylor adds, as families were organized around a father-to-son legacy of status and identity. The result? Surnames served as visual symbols like coats of arms.
How did last names originate and proliferate?
Many of the last names we use in the U.S. today originated along five different, and surprisingly simple, paths. For the most part, these categories developed between the 12th and 14th centuries, though there are some variations in the chronology in different cultural traditions.
Keep in mind that the idea of surnames wasn’t exactly a conscious choice by a parent. “When surnames first appear in the written records, it’s because someone else described the person they were writing about in a certain way,” Taylor says. “So the ‘invention’ of many surnames may have been accidental moments in recordkeeping.”
With that in mind, here are the most common ways last names were born.
Fathers’ names
A patronymic—a term derived from the Greek words for father and name—is a name created with a prefix or suffix attached to a father or male relative’s moniker. Typically of Germanic, Scandinavian, Celtic, Hispanic and Slavic origin, many of these common last names are easy to spot since they sport son at the end (think: Williamson, Johnson, Wilson or Richardson) or prefixes (like O’Brian or O’Neill and MacDonald or McNamara). The Spanish suffix ez also means “son”; examples of these last names include Lopez, Sanchez, Fernandez and Alvarez.
While less common, women also passed down matronymics, such as Nelson (which is derived from Nell or Eleanor), Emmett (Emma), Madison (Maude) and Marriott (Mary). “In parts of South Asia (India, Indonesia), there are cultures where matrilineal inheritance of surnames is the rule,” says Taylor.
Occupations
Names describing the jobs a person held were also a frequent way of making surnames. If you crafted barrels, you might be designated as a Cooper, and if you worked with sheep, you’d be called a Shepherd. Baker, Miller, Carpenter, Fisher and Taylor are other occupations that morphed into last names.
Descriptions
While it might not seem very politically correct today, one’s appearance, personality or nickname became, in some cases, that person’s last name. Examples of these descriptors include Armstrong, Longfellow, Brown, Little, Russo (red), LeBlanc (white), Young, Stern, Swift and Wise.
Terrain
The landscape was also a source of inspiration when creating last names in medieval times. “These are sometimes called toponymic surnames,” Taylor says. “They encompassed features found in many locales, which then gave rise to unrelated families using the same surname.” Some common location-based names include Hill, Wood, Dupont (French for “from the bridge”), Stone, Atwater, Ford, Vega (Spanish for “meadow” or “fertile plain”) and Cumberland.
Cities, estates and feudal manors
Where a person lived also prompted some surnames, including Sussex, Sutton, Kensington and Huntington. And if you owned property, your last name night be the same as your estate’s name. The British royal family, Windsor, is a prime example of this, along with other noble monikers such as Spencer and Stuart.
“In English history, you see names from big historic noble families like Howard, Seymour and Percy,” Cowan says. “Across Europe, noble family names often used little prefixes like de in French or Spanish or von in German, like de Medici or von Habsburg, to show that the family ruled over or owned a specific area.”
Similar to the folks who acquired their surnames based on their occupation, people who held jobs on these grand properties were often identified by those jobs. “So you get names like Reeve or Bailiff for estate managers, Granger for the person in charge of the granary, Hayward for the officer protecting hedges and boundaries, and Bond or Freeman, which shows whether someone was a peasant bound to the land or a free tenant farmer,” Cowan says.
Other trajectories
It’s important to remember that not all cultures hewed to the paths outlined above. “Across many African, Indigenous and South Asian traditions, surnames grew out of clan lineages, spiritual titles or personal characteristics,” Cowan notes.
What are the most common last names?
Here’s a snapshot of the 10 most popular last names in the U.S., according to the 2020 U.S. Census, along with their country of origin and what each of them means.
1. Smith
Meaning: This English and Scottish name is derived from an occupation: a metal worker—particularly, someone who molded iron, like a blacksmith.
How many there are in the U.S.: 2,369,644
2. Johnson
Meaning: Also of English and Scottish heritage, Johnson means “son of John.”
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,858,234
3. Williams
Meaning: Williams is both English and Welsh, and it’s derived from the first name William.
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,561,395
4. Brown
Meaning: Brown falls into the category of appearances or nicknames. This English, Irish and Scottish surname likely developed due to the person’s brown hair or skin.
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,386,083
5. Jones
Meaning: Similar to Jon or Jone, this English and Welsh last name was created to denote a person who lived or worked at John’s house.
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,383,250
6. Garcia
Meaning: Garcia has both Spanish and Portuguese roots and may come from the Basque area. It translates to “young bear” or “brave warrior.”
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,149,510
7. Miller
Meaning: This English and Scottish occupational moniker referred to one who worked at a mill or ground grain.
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,129,186
8. Rodriguez
Meaning: From the Spanish and Portuguese, Rodriguez is a common patronymic that means “son of Rodrigo.”
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,085,838
9. Davis
Meaning: Also a patronymic, Davis is English and Welsh and translates to “son of David.”
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,074,448
10. Martinez
Meaning: The Spanish name Martinez means “son of Martin.”
How many there are in the U.S.: 1,039,848
Are all people with the same last name related from way back when?
Probably not, especially if the last name is common. Still, as science improves, this answer might change. “Over the last 25 years, DNA databases have shown some trends about the likelihood that holders of the same surname are related biologically,” Taylor says. However, if your name is on the unusual side, the chances are better that you’ve got kin around the world. “The rarer the surname, the more likely it is that there is only one biological family accounting for it—only one founding ancestor,” he explains.
My own last name just might fall in the latter basket. “Geddes, per online sources, is indeed that sort of name: a geographically derived surname probably from a single place in Nairnshire, Scotland,” says Taylor. Interesting!
Are new last names still being added, or are they pretty set at this point?
The sky’s the limit when it comes to adding last names. Indeed, as with first names, creating new last names is potentially an endless creative process. You can literally choose what you want for yourself and your offspring. “Dual surnames and hyphenated names are way more visible now, partly because of long-standing cultural norms like Hispanic dual-surname traditions, and partly because modern couples are choosing to blend or keep their names,” Cowan says. “It’s a great reminder that surnames aren’t static; they keep growing to reflect who we actually are.”
Taylor agrees. “With the convergence of so many distinct cultures in a melting pot like ours and the ability to borrow from cultures, the opportunity for new surnames and new patterns is greater than ever before,” he says.
Alas, tracking the wide range of last names isn’t as easy as first names. Thanks to the Social Security Administration, we have an excellent database that traces baby-name choice. “But,” Taylor says, “there’s no similar handy statistical source for surname use in America.”
About the experts
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At Reader’s Digest, we’re committed to producing high-quality content by writers with expertise and experience in their field in consultation with relevant, qualified experts. We rely on reputable primary sources, including government and professional organizations and academic institutions as well as our writers’ personal experiences where appropriate. For this piece on the most common last names in the U.S., Jennifer Geddes tapped her experience as a longtime journalist who frequently writes about family, lifestyle and facts for Reader’s Digest. We verify all facts and data, back them with credible sourcing and revisit them over time to ensure they remain accurate and up to date. Read more about our team, our contributors and our editorial policies.
Sources:
- Nathaniel Lane Taylor, PhD, FASG, president of the American Society of Genealogists; email interview, October 2026
- Crista Cowan, corporate genealogist at Ancestry; email interview, October 2026
- The Atlantic: “A Patriarchal Tradition That Just Won’t Budge”
- U.S. Census Bureau: “Last Name Data from the 2020 Census”
- U.S. Census Bureau: “Most Common First Names and Last Names in the 2020 Census”
- U.S. Census Bureau: “List of Top 15 Last Names in the United States Has Changed Less in the Last 230 Years Than You Might Think”
- MyHeritage: “The History of Surnames: What Was the First Surname Ever Documented?”
- FindMyPast:”English Surnames Explained: The Seven Types of Last Names You Should Know”
- Ancestry: “Discover the Meaning and History Behind Your Name”
- Ancestry: “Last Names and Their Meanings”
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